Leo Szilard Biography, Role in Creation of Atomic Bomb

Leo Szilard Biography, Role in Creation of Atomic Bomb Leo Szilard (1898-1964) was a Hungarian-born American physicist and inventor who played a key role in the development of the atomic bomb. Though he vocally opposed using the bomb in war, Szilard felt it was important to perfect the super-weapon before Nazi Germany. In 1933, Szilard developed the idea of the nuclear chain reaction, and in 1934, he joined with Enrico Fermi in patenting the world’s first working nuclear reactor. He also wrote the letter signed by Albert Einstein in 1939 that convinced U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt of the need for the Manhattan Project to build the atomic bomb. After the bomb had been successfully tested, on July 16, 1945, he signed a petition asking President Harry Truman not to use it on Japan. Truman, however, never received it. Fast Facts: Leo Szilard Full Name: Leo Szilard (born as Leo Spitz)Known For: Groundbreaking nuclear physicistBorn: February 11, 1898, in Budapest, HungaryDied: May 30, 1964, in La Jolla, CaliforniaParents: Louis Spitz and Tekla VidorSpouse: Dr. Gertrud (Trude) Weiss (m. 1951)Education: Budapest Technical University, Technical University of Berlin, Humboldt University of BerlinKey Accomplishments: Nuclear chain reaction. Manhattan Project atomic bomb scientist.Awards: Atoms for Peace Award (1959). Albert Einstein Award (1960). Humanist of the Year (1960). Early Life Leo Szilard was born Leo Spitz on February 11, 1898, in Budapest, Hungary. A year later, his Jewish parents, civil engineer Louis Spitz and Tekla Vidor, changed the family’s surname from the German â€Å"Spitz† to the Hungarian â€Å"Szilard.† Even during high school, Szilard showed an aptitude for physics and mathematics, winning a national prize for mathematics in 1916, the year he graduated. In September 1916, he attended Palatine Joseph Technical University in Budapest as an engineering student, but joined the Austro-Hungarian Army in 1917 at the height of World War I. Portrait of Professor of Biophysics, Institute of Radiobiology and Biophysics, at the University of Chicago Dr Leo Szilard (1898 - 1964), Chicago, Illinois, 1957. PhotoQuest / Getty Images Education and Early Research Forced to return to Budapest to recover from the dreaded Spanish Influenza of 1918, Szilard never saw battle. After the war, he briefly returned to school in Budapest, but transferred to the Technische Hochschule in Charlottenburg, Germany, in 1920. He soon changed schools and majors, studying physics at the Humboldt University of Berlin, where he attended the lectures of no less than Albert Einstein, Max Planck, and Max von Laue. After earning his Ph.D. in physics from the University of Berlin in 1922, Szilard worked as von Laue’s research assistant at the Institute for Theoretical Physics, where he collaborated with Einstein on a home refrigerator based on their revolutionary Einstein-Szilard pump. In 1927, Szilard was hired as an instructor at the University of Berlin. It was there that he published his paper â€Å"On the Decrease of Entropy in a Thermodynamic System by the Intervention of Intelligent Beings,† which would become the basis for his later work on the second law of thermodynamics. The Nuclear Chain Reaction Faced with the threat of the Nazi Party’s anti-Semitic policy and harsh treatment of Jewish academics, Szilard left Germany in 1933. After living briefly in Vienna, he arrived in London in 1934. While experimenting with chain reactions at London’s St. Bartholomews Hospital, he discovered a method of separating the radioactive isotopes of iodine. This research led to Szilard being granted the first patent for a method of creating a nuclear chain reaction in 1936. As war with Germany grew more likely, his patent was entrusted to the British Admiralty to ensure its secrecy. Szilard continued his research at Oxford University, where he intensified his efforts to warn Enrico Fermi of the dangers to humanity of using nuclear chain reactions to create weapons of war rather than to generate energy. The Manhattan Project   In January 1938, with the impending war in Europe threatening his work, if not his very life, Szilard immigrated to the United States, where he continued his research in nuclear chain reactions while teaching at New York’s Columbia University. When news reached America in 1939 that German physicists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann had discovered nuclear fission- the trigger of an atomic explosion- Szilard and several of his fellow physicists convinced Albert Einstein to sign a letter to President Roosevelt explaining the devastating destructive force of an atomic bomb. With Nazi Germany now on the verge of taking over Europe, Szilard, Fermi, and their associates feared what could happen to America if Germany built a working bomb first. Convinced by the Einstein–Szilard letter, Roosevelt ordered the creation of the Manhattan Project, a famed collaboration of outstanding U.S., British, and Canadian scientists dedicated to harnessing nuclear energy for military uses. As a member of the Manhattan Project from 1942 to 1945, Szilard worked as the chief physicist alongside Fermi at the University of Chicago, where they built the world’s first working nuclear reactor. This breakthrough led to the first successful test of an atomic bomb on July 16, 1945, at White Sands, New Mexico. Shaken by the destructive force of the weapon he had helped to create, Szilard decided to dedicate the rest of his life to nuclear safety, arms control, and the prevention of further development of nuclear energy for military purposes. After World War II, Szilard became fascinated by molecular biology and the groundbreaking research being done by Jonas Salk in developing the polio vaccine, eventually helping found the Salk Institute for Biological Studies. During the Cold War, he continued to call for international atomic arms control, the advancement of peaceful uses of nuclear energy, and better U.S. relations with the Soviet Union. Szilard received the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959, and was named Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association, and given the Albert Einstein Award in 1960. In 1962, he founded the Council for a Livable World, an organization dedicated to delivering â€Å"the sweet  voice of reason† about nuclear weapons to Congress, the White House, and the American public. The Voice of the Dolphins In 1961, Szilard published a collection of his own short stories, â€Å"The Voice of the Dolphins,† in which he predicts moral and political issues to be triggered by the proliferation of atomic weapons in the year 1985. The title refers to a group of Russian and American scientists who in translating the language of dolphins found that their intelligence and wisdom exceeded that of humans. In another story, â€Å"My Trial as a War Criminal,† Szilard presents a revealing, though fantasized, view of himself standing trial for war crimes against humanity after the United States had unconditionally surrendered to the Soviet Union, after losing a war in which the U.S.S.R. had unleashed a devastating germ warfare program. Personal Life Szilard married physician Dr. Gertrud (Trude) Weiss on October 13, 1951, in New York City. The couple had no known surviving children. Before his marriage to Dr. Weiss, Szilard had been an unmarried life partner of Berlin opera singer Gerda Philipsborn during the 1920s and 1930s. Cancer and Death After being diagnosed with bladder cancer in 1960, Szilard underwent radiation therapy at New York’s Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital, using a cobalt 60 treatment regimen Szilard himself had designed. After a second round of treatment in 1962, Szilard was declared cancer-free. The Szilard-designed cobalt therapy is still used for the treatment of many inoperable cancers. During his final years, Szilard served as a fellow at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California, which he had helped to found in 1963. In April 1964, Szilard and Dr. Weiss moved to a La Jolla hotel bungalow, where he died of heart attack in his sleep on May 30, 1964, at age 66. Today, a portion of his ashes is buried in Lakeview Cemetery, Ithaca, New York, alongside those of his wife. Sources and Further Reference Lanoutte, William. Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb. University of Chicago Press (1992). ISBN-10: 0226468887Leo Szilard (1898-1964). Jewish Virtual LibraryLeo Szilard Papers, 1898-1998. University of California San Diego (1998)Leo Szilard: European Refugee, Manhattan Project Veteran, Scientist. Atomic Heritage Foundation.Jogalekar, Ashutosh. Why the World Needs More Leo Szilards. Scientific American (February 18, 2014).

Constitutional and administrative law The WritePass Journal

Constitutional and administrative law Abstract Constitutional and administrative law has given powers to the Secretary of State to undertake certain administrative tasks such as the licensing of tyre storage and their destruction. A statement was also made that any decisions on the part of the Secretary of State cannot be challenged in a court of law, and the Secretary of State is given wide discretionary power under the statutory provisions. With this in mind and following certain concerns by three different companies, as well as a pressure group, the question has arisen as to whether or not the powers exercised by the Secretary of State in these scenarios could be subject to judicial review. Introduction The paper here will look, firstly, at the legal principles associated with judicial review, including identifying who may bring an action to judicial review and the grounds for such action, before applying this to the set of facts presented in relation to the individual entities in this case study. Judicial Review – Rules Judicial review provides a procedure whereby an individual or relevant group of individuals can bring an action in court to argue that a public body acted in an unlawful manner (IRC, 1982). Broadly speaking, judicial review will fall into one of three categories: where a public body has acted illegally, i.e. failing to apply the law in the relevant manner; has acted irrationally by making a logical decision; or has undertaken some form of procedural impropriety which means that it has not followed the correct procedure. Where an action for judicial review is successful, the court may then quash the act undertaken by the public body or may require it to review the situation or may refrain the body from acting in the manner that it has been acting, previously. A typical example of this would be a declaration by the High Court that the public body had acted in an unlawful manner and would therefore require it to act differently, in the future (Fulham Corporation 1921). Firstly, it is noted that judicial review is available against a decision made by a public body and, in this case, the Secretary of State for the Environment is a public body making public decisions and would therefore be potentially subject to judicial review, regardless of the statement that it cannot be held accountable in court (Hampshire Farmers Market Ltd., 2004). The individual bringing the action must also have sufficient standing in order to make the application (as defined by Section 31(3) of the Senior Courts Act 1981). In accordance with this section, it is stated that the permission shall not be given to bring an action, unless it is considered that the applicant has sufficient interest in the matter to bring the action (Gough, 1993). Having been allowed to bring an action to judicial review, the next stage is to identify the grounds for challenge of the public authority’s behaviour. Each of the three grounds will be looked at in turn, as each is potentially relevant, in this case. The classification of the grounds that will be discussed here was first established in the Minister for the Civil Service case decided in 1985. Under the heading of illegality, there are several grounds for challenge, with one of the most common aspects of this being where there are allegations that the legislation has been misinterpreted (Anisminic 1969).Crucially, a decision can be deemed to be illegal for the purposes of judicial review, if the decision making body has ignored relevant considerations, or is taking irrelevant considerations into account when making decisions. This is particularly relevant when it comes to a situation whereby the public authority has a relatively high level of discretion in applying the rules and regulations by which it is guided. It is however noted that where the public authority is taking into account legally relevant factors and the decision they make is ultimately rationale this cannot then be queried simply because one of the parties does not agree (ex parte Westminster City Council 1986). L Diplcok also placed a large emphasis on the second ground for challenging the actions of the public body which is on the basis of irrationality. He stated that the decision would be deemed to be irrational if it could be seen as â€Å"so, outrageous in its defiance of logic or accepted moral standards, that no sensible person, whether applied his mind to the question that have arrived at it.† (Associated Provincial 1948)This ground for judicial review is somewhat different than the other two in that it looks at the substance of the decision, but will only allow for judicial review where the decision is outrageous and again, not simply because one of the parties disagree (Barnett 2010). Secondly, also under the umbrella issue of irrationality is that of proportionality meaning that the public body needs to make proportional decisions in order to achieve the underlying aim of the powers given to the public authority. For example it may be seen as disproportionate to prevent a particular protest march from taking place where it would have been possible to protect public safety by simply choosing an alternative route. Proportionality is seen as being particularly relevant when it comes to the European convention on human rights is also an issue that is dealt with when looking at decisions relating to the application of the European convention on human rights under UK law. Fundamentally therefore, where the public body has acted in a way that is disproportionate this could be used as an example of irrationality and therefore offer an opportunity for judicial review (Daly, 2001). Finally there is the category of procedural impropriety which deals with an allegation that the public body has not used the processes and procedures required in order to make the decisions that it has made (Oliver 1987). A distinction is drawn between a procedural requirement which is perceived as being mandatory and a simple direction with any breach of a mandatory requirement allowing for judicial review on the grounds procedurally proprietary. There are also rules associated with natural justice, which are linked to procedural requirements and where it has been a breach of natural justice it is likely that judicial review of the procedurally proprietary will be allowed (Lloyd, 1987). For example, there are specific rules of natural justice, which ensured that no bias is shown and that each individual has the right to a fair hearing. An individual will have a legitimate expectation of how their case should be dealt with and a failure to offer the opportunity to have a fair hearing could result in procedural impropriety (Nottinghamshire CC 1986). Unlike other countries there is not a general requirement under English administrative law to give reasons for decisions however it may be required by statute to provide reasons and this would then prevail. Rules relating to legitimate expectation are also likely to be relevant as it is only reasonable that individuals form expectations on how their own situation will be treated and failure to comply with this can result in procedural impropriety (Fairmount 1976). Once an action for judicial review is successful, there are several different remedies which may be available, including a declaration of incompatibility as well as options for the court to nullify the decision made by the public authority by the requirement for the relevant authority to revisit their decision and to comply with the public authority duties that are relevant (Liverpool Corporation 1972). Bearing in mind the various different issues associated with judicial review the position in relation to the four possible claims for judicial review will be looked at in turn. Alpha Ltd (A) Two decisions have been made that A is confused by. These issues are firstly, the refusal to offer a grant for the recycling expansion due to environmental concerns and secondly, the requirement to cease trading due to the lack of licence. A stores no more than 1000 tyres at a time and these are shredded within 12 months. Schedule 1 (B) states that a licence is not required where the tyres are stored for less than 12 months and there are less than 1000 stored at any point in time. Based on this interpretation it would seem irrational that the Secretary of State for the Environment failed to allow the exemption to apply and this would result in a declaration being made and the position having to be re-considered. By contrast it is simply stated that a recycling grant would require the applicant to show that the waste to be recycled will not be harmful to the environment. It is argued here that the belief by the Secretary of State that the chosen recycling approach by A would be harmful and as such it would be appropriate to refuse the grant and could not be deemed to be irrational or disproportionate as it would seem reasonable to disallow a grant that would potentially support some form of non environmentally friendly approach. Beta Ltd (B) An application for a licence has been rejected by the Secretary of State by B as it is using technologies that are seen to be safe and have been proved as such in Germany but has not gained approval in the UK as is required under the statutory provisions. This presents a reasonably difficult position when it comes to judicial review as it could be argued that the Secretary of State has followed the requirements under the statutory provision yet has potentially acted in a disproportionate manner and has failed to take into account the tests that have taken place in Germany. Despite the potential argument of irrationality that B could put forward, it is suggested on balance that the Secretary of State has followed the processes contained within the statutory provisions and therefore it is unlikely that judicial review will be successful in this situation. Gamma Ltd (G) G has also been refused a licence despite having a strong environmental record. G was initially afforded a licence automatically however this was reneged and G was told to apply for a licence which was ultimately refused due to the previous investigations relating to the theft of tyres, this was not an environmental issue. It is also suggested that bias is being shown as the decision maker was involved in the original investigation. Bearing both of these points in mind it is suggested that the judicial review would be successful on the grounds of procedural improprietary on the grounds of bias as well as illegality as the rules contained within the statutory provision have not been applied appropriately with the relevant investigations needing to be environmental in nature if a licence is to be rejected. Tyred Out (T) T is a special interest group looking at environmental issues associated with the disposal of tyres and is arguing that Delta (D) should not be granted a licence due to a poor environmental record. Firstly it is concluded based on the concepts of material interest that T is able to bring an action for judicial review as it has sufficient interest. Secondly it has been put forward by the Secretary of State that a licence was granted based on the devastating potential on the employment in the area despite poor environmental records. It would be necessary to look therefore whether the decision was rational and proportionate, something which it is suggested based on the facts here that the decision was indeed appropriate and could not be deemed irrational. Discretion is given to the Secretary of State and this discretion has seemingly been applied appropriately making it unlikely that judicial review will be successful. Conclusions By looking at the specific rules and applying this to the four scenarios presented, it could be seen that there are mixed results with judicial review being likely to be successful in the case of Gamma Ltd and partly in relation to Alpha Ltd but would be unsuccessful in the other areas. References Anisminic Ltd v.Foreign Compensation Commission [1969] 2 AC 147 Associated Provincial Picture Houses Ltd v. Wednesbury Corporation [1948] 1 KB 223) Attorney-General v. Fulham Corporation, ex relatione Yapp [1921] 1 Ch 440, Barnett, H (2010) Constitutional Administrative Law, Taylor Francis Bradley, A.W. and Ewing, K.D., (2003) Constitutional and Administrative Law, Pearson. Council of Civil Service Unions v. Minister for Civil Service [1985] AC 374 Fairmount Investments Ltd v. Secretary of State for the Environment [1976] 1 WLR 1255 IRC v. NFSESB [1982] AC 617. Lloyd v McMahon [1987] AC 625 Nottinghamshire CC v. Secretary of State for the Environment [1986] 1 AC 240 Oliver, D (1987)Is the Ultra Vires Rule the Basis of Judicial Review? [1987] P.L. 543 R(Daly) v Secretary of State for the Home Department [2001] 2 AC 532 R (on the application of Beer) v. Hampshire Farmers Market Ltd [2004] 1 WLR 233 R v. Gough [1993] AC 646 R v. Liverpool Corporation, ex parte Liverpool Taxis [1972] 3 WLR 224 Constitutional and Administrative Law Introduction Constitutional and Administrative Law IntroductionBibliographyRelated Introduction In British constitutional theory and practice there is a clear-cut distinction between law and convention.   Law derives from common law and statute, and is enforceable by the courts.   Convention derives from constitutional principle and practice and is not enforceable by the courts.   Law remains in force until changed by statute.   Convention may change with changing times.   Law, at least if statutory, is ascertainable in precise form.   Convention is often imprecise and may be nowhere formulated in categorical terms. (Professor H.W.R. Wade) Is this an accurate explanation of the distinctive nature of law and convention in relation to the British constitution? Professor H.W.R Wade produced a statement highlighting a clear-cut distinction between the nature of law and convention in relation to the British Constitution. Throughout this essay I shall critically asses the validity and accuracy of his explanation by taking an in depth look at key concepts, doctrines and comments to evaluate whether a distinction exists   between the nature of law and convention. Whilst Britain does not have a single codified document called ‘The Constitution’, it would be deceptive to assert that the constitution is unwritten. Indeed, Britain’s constitution has been cultivated from multiple key constitutional sources which make it possible to approach a description of the constitution. These sources can be found in the decisions of the courts in the form of dictum or in the interpretation of statute. With Britain being a member state of the European Union part of the constitution can emanate from EU Law, the Royal Prerogative, and a distinct part is found in historical arrangements and practices known as conventions. I shall be focusing primarily on the nature of law and conventions, in relation to the British constitution in order to assess whether a distinctions is visible between the two constitutional sources. Professor Wade asserts that â€Å"Law derives from common law and statute, and is enforceable by the courts. Convention derives from constitutional principle and practice is not enforceable by the courts†. Accordingly, it would be just to establish that from a precise detailed point of view, this statement can be seen to be contentious. This is primarily because Professor Wade highlights that the â€Å"Law derives from common law and statute† however what he seizes to base emphasis on is the mere fact that conventions set a key agenda in the crafting of statute and common law reasoning; in the words of Sir Ivor Jennings â€Å"conventions provide the flesh which clothes the dry bones of the law†[1] Thus, evidently the legal hierarchy of the British constitution is everywhere penetrated, transformed and inherently effected by an inevitable element of convention, and a failure to adhere to an important convention might lead Parliament to cast a disputed practice int o legislative form. An example of this is The Parliament Act 1911, which was enforced after the House of Lords exceeded conventional limits on its power, rejecting, in 1909, a finance bill (Lloyd George’s ‘People’s Budget’). This consequently undermines, to some extent, the clear-cut distinction Professor Wade respectively explains, in that, if conventions are so interconnected in the cultivation of   the natural form of law as mentioned above then a distinction cannot be clear-cut or even made, and this connection will always bind the natural law and conventions. Evidently the natural form of law is enforceable by the courts. Professor Wade makes a distinction here between the nature of law and convention by stating that â€Å"Law is enforceable by the courts.Convention is not enforceable by the courts† The issue here arises with regards to the validity of this statement. Are conventions indeed distinctly dissimilar to the nature of law in that they are not enforceable by the courts? Indeed, conventions are rules and are part of the constitutional order, interrelated and interwoven to some extent, however relatively distinguishable from the natural form of law as Professor Wade asserts. The key distinction is in the nature of the enforcement and of the sanction. As mentioned above the natural form of law is inherently enforced in the courts; however it could be debated as to whether conventions are fully applied in courts (discussed further below), conventions are most certainly non-legal but nonetheless binding rules of constitutional behaviour. A good example of this is the convention of ministerial responsibility. It is a convention which holds ministers wholly and individually responsible to Parliament. If a minister knowingly misleads parliament for example he or she will be expected to resign from office. If no resignation is forthcoming the minister would be acting unconstitutionally and NOT illegally. A court of law could not compel a resignation in this situation. Nonetheless, in the case of R. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Hosenball[2] the court had relaxed the rules of natural justice â€Å"for the protection of the realm† in a case were the Secretary of State had considered information that Mr.Hosenball, while resident in the United Kingdom, had sought and obtained for publication information harmful to the security of the United Kingdom. This case proves that the courts were willing to shape up the natural form of the law and enforce a convention for public interest in order to ensure the security of the ‘realm’. A key point to address in this case was that the Secretary of State had not arguably acted fairly in that Mr.Hosenball was denied a fair trial. In today’s court this would infringe article 6 of the Human Rights Act 1998. Therefore, it would be fair to establish that in today’s courts the judiciary would have taken a different approach to tackling the aforementioned case. So is Professor Wade accurate in explaining that a distinction between the nature of law and convention exists on the basis that law is enforceable by the courts and convention is not? Certainly the above case contradicts to this to some extent; however a reluctance of the modern courts to enforce conventions has crafted this distinction, making Professor Wade’s distinction relatively accurate on this basis. However as highlighted by the convention of ministerial responsibility a distinction can be formed between a convention and the natural form of law on the basis that acting unconstitutionally differs from acting illegally as highlighted above. Professor Wade explains that a distinction exists between the nature of law and convention on the basis that â€Å"Law remains in force until changed by statute, and convention may change with changing times†. Accordingly Professor Wade is to some extent right in this distinction, in that we have seen numerous acts of parliament being superseded and changed by more modern statutes. Furthermore, it would be fair to establish that courts accept the validity of the acts of Parliament and have validated the concept of Parliamentary Sovereignty, and although the courts do not directly challenge legislation passed down by Parliament, a strong part of the constitution comprises of common law and not solely statute law, particularly in certain cases involving private law including tort and contract law. Thus to some extent it could be inaccurate and problematic to assert that â€Å"law remains in force until changed by statute†. Furthermore, Professor Wade, establishes that â€Å"conventions may change with changing times†. He is indeed relatively accurate in making this statement, as proven by the ‘Widdicombe Convention’ which was formally recorded to resolve any conventional ambiguities with regards to the media and publicity campaigns. This convention was effectively the result of the growing media and the influence it had on society. This convention inherently proves the accuracy of Professor Wade’s explanation that ‘conventions may change with times’. However the legitimacy of this distinction is inaccurate in a sense on the grounds that even the law may change with time, after all, this is why we have a parliament and a superior court system. With changes in society comes change in the law, this is the basic foundation of any competent legal system. Alas, this asserts that Professor Wade’s distinction is relatively inaccurate as both the natural form of la w and conventions change with time in order to sufficiently meet the ever changing needs of our society. Another distinction Professor Wade explains in his statement is that the â€Å"law, at least if statutory, is ascertainable in precise form, convention is often imprecise and may be nowhere formulated in categorical forms† To some extent it can be rather contentious to assert that statutory law is precise in its form. This is merely because a broad term may be used in a statute which can give rise to confusion and uncertainty, developments in society can make the words used in a statute out of date and they may no longer cover the current situation. An example of this is in Section 53, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 c. 25[3]. However the important distinction made here is the statement asserting that â€Å"conventions are often imprecise and may be nowhere formulated in categorical form†. A good authority which validly contradicts to this inaccurate distinction is the convention of ministerial responsibility which is included in the Ministerial Code, which is issued upon appointment to all ministers by the Prime Minister.   The convention clearly sets out the conventions and codes of practice as a minister. Thus, in conclusion after critically assessing Professor Wade’s explanation of the distinctive nature of law and convention in relation to the British constitution I have established that some of the distinctions he explains are more accurate than others. Initially the Parliament Act 1911 proved that failure to adhere to an important convention might lead Parliament to cast a disputed practice into legislative form which undermined Professor Wade’s explanation, and proves that convention can indeed constitute into law. Furthermore the case of R. v Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex p. Hosenball[4] proved that a convention could to some extent be enforceable in order to ensure the protection of the ‘realm’. I also established that Professor Wade was accurate in asserting that a â€Å"convention may change in time† as proven by the Widdicombe Convention, however his distinction could be seen as inaccurate as even the natural form of law can be changed in time to suit the needs of society. The convention of ministerial responsibility’s clarity contradicts Professor Wade’s distinction which stated that â€Å"that convention is imprecise in comparison to the precise form of law†. Therefore the aforementioned examples highlight that Professor Wade’s respective explanation although rightful in some aspects; the distinctions made can seem too broad and relatively inaccurate in some arspects in defining a convention and comparing it to the natural form of law. Bibliography Ward, R. (1997) Cases on Constitutional Administrative Law 4th edition, Pitman Publishing Horsey, K. (2009) Tort Law, Oxford University Press Leyland, P. (2007) The Constitution of the United Kingdom, Hart Publishing Turpin, C. (2007) British Government and the Constitution 6th edition, Cambridge University Press

Export marketing (US market) opportunity for UK based energy drink Assignment

Export marketing (US market) opportunity for UK based energy drink - Assignment Example This has resulted in the evolution of a new pattern of consumer behaviour from consumers of various new and emerging economies. It needs to be mentioned that in order to meet the growing amount of diverse needs of the customers, the setting up of global trade processes is very essential. It is of utmost importance that global trade is highly necessary as it helps in satisfying the needs of the customer while generating strategic benefits for the firms (Seyoum, 2000, p. 7) Discussing in details about the requirements of this project, it has to be brought into notice that the current focus is to develop an intensive evaluation for the opportunity related to exporting for a particular product. For this assignment, the product that is being selected is the UK based product Lucozade. While introducing the product Lucozade, it has to be mentioned that it is an energy drink, which promises to meet the varying calorie requirements of athletes, sports professional as well as fitness conscious individuals. The project focuses on identifying the opportunity related to attaining business growth by entering a new overseas market like the United States. So, the main motive of the project is to identify the export opportunity of Lucozade from the UK to the US. Justifying the choice of country It is important to mention that while selecting a market for exporting of products, the focus is on identifying the various prospects associated with it (Zou & et.al, 2009, p. 32). In the times of increased economic uncertainty as well as various other macroeconomic challenges in various corners of the world, it is highly interesting to mention that the market demand for energy drink products is growing various developed as well as developing markets. As of the recent times, the energy drinks is considered as a growing sub category of soft drinks in various global markets because of the increased focus of masses around the world to lead a healthy and fit life. It has been estimated that the global health drinks market is estimated to attain a growth rate of around 35% by the year 2016 (Russell, 2012). As per market based region specific forecasts, it has also been found that the markets of Asia, North America and West Europe are expected to grow the most (Business Wire, 2013). As per an OECD sponsored report dated in the year 2012, it has been found that the United States leads the world in regards to mass obesity (Obesity Update 2012, 2012, p. 2). Source: Obesity Update 2012, 2012, p. 2 It also has to be said that in the United States, the obesity has grown in the range of 4 to 5% on an annual basis (Huffington Post, 2012). Source: Chou & Kane, 2012 Data backed statistics also indicate that around 68% of the US population are possibly overweight or obese (Chou & Kane, 2012). However, it is of increased importance to highlight the fact that due to an increase in obesity numbers, there has been a growing consciousness amongst the masses around the world to stay fit and in shape (Johnson, 2012). Talking on this note, the fact of increased consciousness in regards to obesity in the US market also has to be taken into consideration. Records of previous sales reveal that the sales of the energy drinks are

Seminar Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Seminar - Essay Example The project is an ideal catalyst for both my artistic and professional growth. The project will provide me with an opportunity to interact with customers and will therefore require me to act ethically and professionally. From such reactions, I will improve my professional expertise in the practice. Additionally, the cloud installations are artistic. Every real-life installation I make will improve my artistry. The practice is pivotal in my practice since it will provide me with an opportunity to start my career and position it strategically for growth. The success of the business amounts to my success. Creative capital offers artists a number of both monetary and non-monetary services and resources that can help in a number of ways. The professional development workshops for example can help enhance my development in the practice. Through the workshops, I will acquire appropriate professional skills that will enhance the development of the business. Additionally, Creative Capital offers both funding and counsel to great projects and business ideas. Both would help me overcome a number of operational challenges thereby ensuring that the business idea enjoys immense success for

Query letter and outline Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Query letter and outline - Assignment Example A modification of the guidelines, through the eighth Joint National Commission (JNC-8) suggested inefficiency of the previous guidelines and possible improvement in management of blood pressure. A majority of hypertension patients, however, fails to manage their blood pressure and this identifies significance of the hypertension as a health concern. The article investigates and reports on common practices in prevention of hypertension and management of blood pressure among hypertension patients and effects of the practices on quality of health, in a seminar set up. Using comparative analysis, effective practices are identified and are compared with provisions of JNC-8 guidelines with the aim of promoting awareness and use of JNC-8 guidelines among nurse practitioners. Publishing the article will, therefore educate nurses of best practices for management of hypertension and, through awareness, influence them to use the practices for better health. The publication will therefore achieve the journal’s objectives of promoting education and improving care practices. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. (2015). Guide for authors. The Journal for Nurse Practitioners. Retrieved from:

Toyota Prius Hybrid Marketing Plan Essay Example for Free

Toyota Prius Hybrid Marketing Plan Essay As Americans become increasingly more concerned about global warming, many are making choices about the vehicles they drive based on fuel economy and tail pipe emissions. Hybrid sales have increased 313% from 84,199 cars in 2004, to 347,102 in 2007. Driving a hybrid might make people feel better for helping the environment, but is it really better for our planet? The answer it seems, is, â€Å"it depends. † It depends on who is doing the evaluating and what the criteria are. When I started this analysis, I expected to find overwhelming evidence in favor of one category or another. Instead what I found was a lot of confusing information. The confusion arose because different groups focused on different aspects. Most analysis focused either on economics, (i. e. how much money the owner would save over time) or consumption, (i. e. how many gallons of fuel the car would consume over its useful life), but in nearly all cases, the analysis was confined to the period of time during which the car would be driven. What went into making the car and what happens to it after it’s been abandoned by its owners was largely ignored, and I suspect it’s ignored because it’s so hard to evaluate. I found this to be a very consistent theme in the rating systems of all products I’ve researched. Even Energy Star, which ranks household appliances, focuses on energy consumption during use, but the energy to produce, estimated useful life and eventual disposal, is largely ignored. This leads to an incomplete and sometimes inconsistent perspective to consumers. One organization that focuses on the full life cycle analysis of automobiles is CNW Marketing in Bandon, Oregon. Founded in 1984, CNW is a for profit market research company that specializes in the automotive industry. In 2001, they pioneered a life cycle analysis of the auto industry in an annual report they called, â€Å"Dust to Dust†. 2 In this report, CNW collected data on the energy consumed to plan, build, sell, drive and eventually dispose of a vehicle. They followed it from initial concept to the junk yard. They even took into consideration small details such as the distance from manufacturing plant to dealership, the average distances between employees’ homes and the factory where the cars were built. They also considered the method of transportation employees take to get to work, (i. e if mass transit was available and utilized). Worth noting is that CNW excluded economics from their analysis. The economic cost to build a car and run and maintain it was completely ignored. Also ignored were the environmental impacts of materials. If one car required less energy to produce but incorporated hazardous substances, it scored better than a car that required more energy but used benign materials. CNW focused strictly on energy consumption. For 2007, 284 cars were evaluated. The average energy rating for all cars was 2. 54 per mile. The car with the highest energy cost was the Mercedes Maybach, with an energy factor of 15.97. The car with the lowest energy cost was the Mercedes Smart Car, with a score of 0. 58. Worth noting was the average for all hybrids was 3. 41, which was significantly worse than the average. The best in the hybrid group was the Toyota Prius which scored 2. 19. According to their analysis, hybrid vehicles cost more in terms of overall energy consumed than conventional cars. One of the reasons hybrids score so poorly is because of their complexity to manufacture, repair, replace, and dispose of batteries and electric motors, (which exists in addition to a conventional engine). Hybrids are also more difficult to recycle. For example, the Honda Accord hybrid scored 4. 23, but the regular non hybrid Accord with a conventional gasoline engine scored a 1. 96. Over the course of its lifetime, the Accord hybrid is expected to consume more than twice the energy of it non-hybrid sibling. The non hybrid has a 2. 4 liter, four cylinder motor rated at 166 horsepower. The hybrid has a 3. 0 liter, six cylinder engine rated at 255 horsepower. The hybrid also has an additional electric motor and batteries. The hybrid achieves 29 miles per gallon in the city and 37 miles per 3 gallon highway as compared to 25 in the city and 35 on the highway for the non hybrid. The hybrid version cost almost $10,000 more than the non-hybrid. Again, economics were not considered in the study, but the price alone should give some indication of the cars increased complexity. In 2008, Honda abandoned manufacture of the Accord Hybrid. The Backlash.. CNW’s automotive research was sold largely to the auto industry executives and companies that supply the auto industry. It wasn’t until 2005, when word got out that CNW’s annual â€Å"Dust to Dust† report listed the Hummer H3 as reportedly â€Å"better for the environment† than the Toyota Prius, that the company gained widespread attention. Environmentalists were outraged. They demanded that the details of the analysis be made public for further scrutiny. CNW is a for-profit organization that charges a fee for their analysis. They believed that publishing their calculations would open them up to competition they would rather avoid. They did disclose some information to the general public and their critics. CNW also pointed out that they never said the Hummer was better for the environment, only that it would consume less energy from a cradle to grave perspective. In fairness to CNW’s critics, the life cycle energy rating is largely dependent on the products useful life. The Hummer was assumed to have a useful life of 200,000 miles, whereas the Prius was assumed to have a useful life of only 109,000 miles. The environmentalists believed that these â€Å"projected life cycle miles† were unsubstantiated and pointed out that a small change in miles can have a huge effect on the overall energy rating. CNW countered that their mileage were real world estimates based on actual driving conditions and interviews with owners. After interviewing many Prius owners, CNW determined that the average miles driven were only 6,700 per year. This equated to a useful life of just over 16 years, which CNW pointed out exceeded Toyota’s life expectancy for the Prius’ batteries, which is between 10 and 15 years. 4 The same criticism was noted for the Honda Accord as well. The hybrid Accord was assumed to have a useful life of 117,000 miles, whereas the non hybrid Accord had a useful life of 209,000 miles. Change the miles and the ratings can change quite dramatically. CNW continues to point out that if what is important to consumers is fuel economy and tail pipe emissions, then hybrids do make sense during their useful life, but taking into consideration the â€Å"bigger picture†, hybrids don’t measure up where most consumers think they should. Many consumers perceive sport utility vehicles as â€Å"bad† because of their lower fuel economy and perceived inefficiency as a method of transportation, but many of these vehicles are easy to produce, have a long useful life and are easy to dissemble / recycle. So, their impact on the environment is not as bad as originally thought. CNW also points out that like many other things, the simplest design is often the best design and the cars that score best on CNW’s list are simple, low technology cars, that have long useful lives. Keep in mind that CNW ignored economics and the environmental impact of materials used. Had CNW incorporated an auto manufacturer’s monetary investment of profits into green technology versus another’s deliberate use of hazardous materials, it would have made the analysis incredibly complicated. If anything, the controversy surrounding CNW’s report illustrates out how difficult it is to assess the overall green nature of any product. Energy Life Cycle Assessment – CNW’s 10 Most Efficient versus Hybrids Top 10 Most Efficient Cars 2007 Models Dust to Dust Per Mile Mercedes SMART 0. 583 Saturn Ion 0. 621 Ford Focus 0. 621 Chevy Cavalier 0. 655 Jeep Wrangler 0. 656 Scion xB 0. 683 Chevy Aveo 0. 693 Scion xA 0. 713 Pontiac Sunfire 0. 732 Toyota Corolla 0. 748 Industry Average All Models 2. 538 All Hybrids 2007 Models Dust to Dust Per Mile Toyota Prius 2. 191 Ford Escape Hybrid 2. 747 Honda Civic Hybrid 2. 943 Toyota Camry Hybrid 3. 042 Toyota Highlander Hybrid 3. 078 Ford Mercury Mariner Hybrid 3. 412 Honda Accord Hybrid 4. 228 Lexus GS450h 4. 365 Lexus RX400h 4. 661 Hybrid Average 3. 407 5 The Electric Movement. In 2010, Chevrolet is expected to introduce the Volt, a car that can be recharged like a cell phone and travel 40 miles on electricity before using any fuel. GM hopes that those with short commutes can use the car solely on battery power. Again, what’s not taken into consideration is the â€Å"bigger picture† of where the electricity comes from. Just because it appears clean when it’s recharging, doesn’t mean that things aren’t getting dirty somewhere else. A study in 2003 by the Institute for Lifecycle of Assessment determined that if an electric vehicle is recharged via a power plant that uses coal as its primary fuel source, than the impact to the environment would be no better than a conventional gasoline engine. According to the US Department of Energy, in 2006, the US derived 49% of its total electrical power from coal. The state of Pennsylvania derived 56% of its electrical power from coal. Again, these are both averages for both the US and the state of Pennsylvania. Energy source may differ by location within a state. I live in Vineland, New Jersey. Vineland has its own power utility. It is 100% coal fired. Choices, Choices Everywhere Gas? Electric? Ethanol? Alcohol? Diesel? Hybrid? With all the choices and incomplete information available to consumers, which choice is best, (and practical), for consumers who are interested in a sustainable energy source that minimizes harm to the planet? Other, 2. 1% Hy dro Electric, 1. 3% Nuclear, 34. 4% Natural Gas, 6. 2% Coal, 56. 0% Pennsylvania Energy by Source Other, 4. 5% Hydro Electric, 7. 1% Nuclear, 19. 4% Natural Gas, 20. 0% Coal, 49. 0% U. S. Energy by Source 6 In my personal opinion, the best energy choice for transportation that is currently available is biodiesel. Biodiesel is a renewable fuel manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats and recycled cooking oils. It can be burned in any current vehicle with a diesel engine as a replacement to conventional petroleum based diesel fuel. To make biodiesel, (see above), a catalyst, (Sodium Hydroxide), is used to mix methanol and vegetable oil to separate the glycerin. The end result is mainly a mixture of biodiesel and glycerin, with a small amount of methanol and fertilizer. The fertilizer is used in agricultural production. The methanol is returned back to the process input. The glycerin is a byproduct used in the manufacture of soaps and cosmetics. Making biodiesel may seem complicated, but it is not, and can be done by anyone with limited knowledge of chemistry. Vegetable oils can be new or used and purchased from a grocery store or taken for free as waste oil from most restaurants. Methanol is made from methane, a naturally occurring chemical in the atmosphere that is caused when bacteria break down organic compounds. Methanol is also a commonly used racing fuel and can be purchased in bulk from fuel suppliers. The catalyst, Sodium Hydroxide, is the technical name for lye. Lye is also a natural product that is used in the manufacture of soap. It can be purchased as a drain cleaner available in most hardware stores. Those three ingredients and a little bit of heat are all that is needed to make biodiesel. Methanol or Alcohol 12% Process Input Catalyst (Lye) 1% Vegetable Oil 87% Vegetable OilMethanol or AlcoholCatalyst (Lye) Process Output Methanol or Glycerin 9% Alcohol 4% Fertilizer 1% Biodiesel 86% BiodieselGlycerinMethanol or AlcoholFertilizer 7 Biodiesel is significantly better for the environment than conventional diesel because it is made from renewable resources and has lower emissions than petroleum diesel. It is less toxic than household table salt and biodegrades as fast as sugar. Since it can be made in the U. S. from renewable resources such as soybeans, it decreases dependence on foreign oil and helps support local farmers. Green Car. com recently gave the 2009 Green Car of the Year award to the Volkswagen Jetta Diesel, beating both hybrids and ethanol powered cars. Earlier this year, the Jetta TDI set a new Guinness World Record for lowest fuel consumption. It averaged 58. 8 miles per gallon as it traveled through 48 contiguous states. Imagine the environmental impact if the Jetta were powered by biodiesel instead of conventional diesel. The EPA estimates that if advanced diesels such as the one that powers the Jetta were used in one third of all light duty vehicles in the US, it would save almost 60 million gallons of oil per day. When the diesel engine was invented in 1890, its inventor, Rudolf Diesel, designed it to run on peanut oil. However, in the early 1900’s petroleum based fuels were considered easier and cheaper to manufacture and the diesel engine was converted to run on a petroleum based fuel, (that later became his namesake). Diesel engines utilize high compression and are inherently more energy efficient than gasoline engines. A recent analysis by RAND Corporation, a not for profit institution that studies challenges facing society, found that of the most common alternative fuels available, that a conventionally powered diesel car provides the greatest benefit to consumers and to society. They found that advanced diesel engines provide a slight edge over gas-electric hybrids and both diesels and hybrids were significantly better than ethanol, mainly due to the high cost and resource- intensive means of producing and transporting ethanol. 8 The Advantages of Biodiesel. The benefits of bio based fuels are numerous. Most notably, they are significantly less pollutive than petroleum diesel. In a study conducted by the Environmental Protection Agency in 2002, they found biodiesel to have 67% less unburned hydrocarbons, 48% less carbon monoxide, 47% less particulate matter, 100% less sulfates and 50% less ozone smog than conventional petroleum based diesel. They did however; find a 10% increase in NoX, (Nitrous Oxide), emissions. A life cycle study on Green House Gas emissions per mile by Harvard University in 2001 found that cars powered by biodiesel, (BD100), produced the lowest emissions. Another advantage to biodiesel is that it is a renewable and sustainable fuel made from plants and animal fats. So long as there is the ability to grow plants and animals, there is the opportunity to make biodiesel. Studies have also found that biodiesel has better lubricating capabilities than conventional diesel fuel, which contributes to increased engine life. Use of biodiesel reduces our reliance on foreign countries and places greater reliance on American farmers. Lastly, from a practical perspective, there is no expensive infrastructure rollout necessary to make biodiesel work. It will function in any conventional diesel 9 engine that currently uses petroleum based diesel fuel with no problems and can even be blended with petroleum diesel without harm. The Disadvantages of Biodiesel Unfortunately, biodiesel retains some of the physical characteristics of its source material, most problematic being its narrow temperature range. Most plant oils and animal fats gel or coagulate at around 50 degrees Fahrenheit. Even after processing out the glycerin, biodiesel will gel at around 32 degrees Fahrenheit, which means it can only be used in warm climates, can only be used in the summer, or if it is to be used year round, it must be blended with kerosene or diesel fuel to retain some of the latter’s cold weather capabilities. Another disadvantage to biodiesel is that it can only be used in a diesel engine. Currently, less than 2% of the cars in the U. S. have diesel engines. The majority of cars and light trucks in the U. S. are powered by gasoline. Until the diesel engine makes a comeback in the U. S passenger car market, its use is limited to large trucks and heavy equipment. Worth noting too, is that biodiesel, though significantly cleaner than petroleum diesel, is still not environmentally perfect. Until a cleaner fuel source, like hydrogen, whose emissions are water and oxygen, become commercially and practically available, this is the best that is currently available. As stated earlier, biodiesel is made from plant oils and animal fats. If farm crops are diverted from human consumption in favor of fuel production, then biodiesel can raise the prices of soy and rapseed in much the same way that ethanol increased the price of corn. However, unlike ethanol, biodiesel can be made from waste oil after it has made its way through the food supply. In this way, (and unlike ethanol), biodiesel can convert a waste product instead of decreasing a food supply. Another weakness to biodiesel is its perception as a commodity. Commodities compete solely on the basis of price. As the price of petroleum based diesel drops, biodiesel makes little to no economic sense. 10 Biodiesel is not free. Even in instances where it is made from food waste or byproducts, there is still a conversion cost and that cost often exceeds the price of petroleum diesel. At best, on a commercial scale, biodiesel is a â€Å"break even† business, which is of little interest to the investment community. Biodiesel production centers exist largely though financial assistance from the government. For this reason, almost all large scale biodiesel production centers are not-for- profit oriented, or exist solely to service municipal vehicles. Making it Personal The most successful application of biodiesel appears to come from â€Å"home brewers† – people like me who have crafted processors in their garages and basements and make biodiesel from waste vegetable oil collected from the dumpsters behind restaurants and schools. For this group, biodiesel is largely a hobby, supported by a grass roots community who are frugal, environmentally conscious, interested in renewable energy, and making a political statement. They make biodiesel in much the same way that people home brew wine or beer for personal consumption. Ironically, the only obstacle to this group seems to be the U. S. government. Uncle Sam has â€Å"green† ideas of his own. In the US, Federal and State fuel taxes combined can make up as much as 15% to 20% of the total fuel price paid at the pump. When a home brewer makes biodiesel, no road taxes are paid. There have been numerous instances of â€Å"biodieselers† being threatened by the government with fines and imprisonment. Legislation surrounding biodiesel production for home consumption is still unclear. In Conclusion Biodiesel production has increased dramatically in the past 5 years, with annual production rising from 5 million gallons in 2001 to an estimated 500 million gallons in 2007. However, this is not even a drop in the bucket when compared to the 840 million gallons of oil the U. S. consumes PER DAY! There are simply not enough plant oils and animal fats on earth to sustain the U. S. ’s 11 current level of demand. A long term solution must include some way to decrease consumption. References: †¢United States Environmental Protection Agency, A Comprehensive Analysis of Biodiesel Impacts on Exhaust Emissions, October 2002 †¢CNW Marketing Research Inc, 2007 Dust to Dust – The Energy Cost of New Vehicles from Concept to Disposal. www. cnwmr. com †¢Wall Street Journal, Volkswagen’s 2009 Jetta TDI Awarded Green Car of the Year, November 20, 2008 †¢The Rand Corporation – The Benefits and Costs of New Fuels and Engines for Cars and Light Trucks, Ryan Keefe, Jay Griffin and John Graham, November 2007, www.rand. org. †¢The Green Motorist. com, Jetta sets Guinness Record, September 29, 2008 †¢Harvard. edu, Report on Bus Alternatives, July 31, 2001 †¢The Pacific Institute – Hummer versus Prius – Dr. Peter H. Gleick, May 2007 †¢Effects of Biodiesel Blends on Vehicle Emissions, R. L. McCormick, A. Williams, J. Ireland, M. Brimhall, R. R. Hayes, October 2006 †¢Energy Information Administration – Official Energy Statistics from the US Government www. eia. doe. gov †¢www. factsonfuel. org – Gasoline Index 12.

Aristophanes Views On Love :: essays research papers

Aristophanes Views on Love In the Symposium, a most interesting view on love and soul mates are provided by one of the characters, Aristophanes. In the speech of Aristophanes, he says that there is basically a type of love that connects people. Aristophanes begins his description of love by telling the tale of how love began. He presents the tale of three sexes: male, female, and a combination of both. These three distinct sexes represented one’s soul. These souls split in half, creating a mirror image of each one of them. Aristophanes describes love as the search for the other half of your soul in this quote: â€Å"When a man’s natural form was split in two, each half went round looking for its other half. They put their arms around one another, and embraced each other, in their desire to grow together again. Aristophanes theme is the power of Eros and how not to abuse it. Aristophanes thinks that a human’s love is clearly â€Å"a lack† – a lack of one’s other half- and having no meant to satisfy themselves they begin to die. Zeus, having failed to foresee this difficulty repairs the damage by inventing sexual reproduction (191 b-c). Any â€Å"embracements† of men with men or of women with women would of course be sterile – though the participants would at least â€Å"have some satiety of their union and a relief,† (191 c) and therefore would be able to carry on the work of the world. Sex, therefore, is at this stage a drive, and the object is defined only as human. Sexual preferences are to emerge only as the human gains experience, enabling them to discover what their â€Å"original form† had been. Aristophanes has mildly insulted the previous speakers in two ways. By claiming that one of the original forms was androgynous, he has suggested that heterosexuality is at least as natural as male homosexuality – as is being a lesbian. In contrast, Empedokles in fact did hold to a theory of sorts based on fitness to the environment, the description at 191c strongly suggests that only heterosexual relationships yielding only a temporary satisfaction and relief, allowing the participants to go about their business. He does go on to suggest that those who are sections of androgynes are â€Å"adulterers† â€Å"adulteresses† (191 d-e), but this can only show the rather bizarre belief that sexual intercourse with a member of the same sex does not constitute adultery.